- 저자
- KIM Sang-Bae(Seoul National University)
- 발간호
- 2011-10
Cyber Spear vs. Digital ShieldDuring the Chu Dynasty in China, a man was seen selling a spear and a shield in the market. He shouted loudly in praise of his spear: “My spear is the sharpest one in the world and can pierce through anything.” Then he began singing the praises of his shield: “My shield is so strong that no matter how sharp the spears and arrows are, they can’t go through my shield,” whereupon a man asked him: “Then what would happen if you pierced your shield with your spear?” He had nothing to say.An increasing number of computer hackers proudly claim that they can break through any firewalls. Hacking skills are developing day by day and new computer viruses continue to appear. Computer security experts say that they can fend off any attack from hackers with their firewall technologies, vaccine programs and techniques for finding hackers’ hideouts. It is not for us to say who will be the final victor in this digital era version of the “all-piercing spear and the unpenetrable shield” story. It is not a simple matter and we need to be very cautious when making statements as to who will be the winner. The foregoing story about a Chinese tradesman was about how to fend off a spear attack with a shield. The digital era version of the story, however, is about how to fend off an attack by many spears with many shields. The issue of cyber security, which concerns how to fend off cyber attacks or acts of cyber terrorism, is a representative example of an asymmetrical war in which diverse actors take part against a backcomposed of a complex network environment.Non-State Actors, State Actors and Cyber SecurityBasically, cyber attacks or acts of cyber terrorism are games played by network-based, non-systematically organized actors not by state actors. Thus, they are complex games in which it is hard to identify the main culprit, given the way they are played and their nature. Let’s take the recent DDoS attack in this country, which became the focus of widespread attention, as an example. In a DDoS attack, the actors spread malicious codes and hacking tools to a number of personal computers, thus transforming them into “zombie” computers. They use the zombie computers to generate a large volume of traffic, targeting specified servers, in an attempt to render the servers unable to carry out their proper functions. These acts are carried out in a non-lineal way, involving computers and human actors compositely, which means that it is not easy to identify the agent of the attack. Indeed, the network itself becomes a culprit in such cases.Here, “network” does not refer to an ordinary network formed of nodes linked with each other. It is a “complex network” that has a flexible outward boundary like an amoeba it can change its appearance freely like the Lego bricks also, it can restore any damaged part like a lizard’s tail in no time. Recently, networking expenses have been reduced dramatically with the rapid expansion of the Internet. Under such circumstances, non-state actors that rely on the mechanism of such a complex network have come to the fore, wielding a unique type of power that was unimaginable in the past.Cases in which non-state actors exert power by relying on the Internet are found in various areas of the knowledge/information-based society, particularly in the field of cyber security. Ironically enough, the Internet itself provides the means that enable the actors to exert such power. With the Internet influencing our daily lives to an ever greater extent, any shutdown of the Internet is capable of dealing a lethal blow to a community. Moreover, we need to understand that it is due to the structural attributes of the information system, in the shape of the Internet, that such non-state actors can exert a serious threat to the world, although they are powerless themselves.Even a well-designed information system cannot free itself from bugs, which are byproducts of its complex technical system. Such a loophole (also called an “exploit”) becomes a target of attacks from hackers. The very structural attributes of the complex network provide vulnerable spots that affect the entire system. A few loopholes do not cause the network to shut down. However, if the few loopholes are attacked seriously, it is not easy to block the impact of such an attack on the entire network, and all the more so because hackers aim to disturb software programs rather than destroy hardware in a limited sector. Computer viruses or malicious codes are leading examples of culprits that seek to the disturb normal functioning of the system by seeping through such loopholes.Among those who succeed in seeping through such loopholes are relatively innocent hackers. However, the issue becomes serious when the culprits are terrorists seeking to destabilize a social system. Furthermore, sometimes the acts of state actors are hidden behind the those of non-state actors. Recently, a controversy arose when some people insisted that the Chinese government had played a backstage role in the attack perpetrated by Chinese hackers against users of Google’s email service. It has also been claimed that North Korea operates a cyber unit composed of 3,000 hacker troops and that these have perpetrated cyber attacks against the South on several occasions. The North is said to have boosted its cyber warfare strength strategically, along with the development of nuclear weapons, to make up for its weakness in terms of conventional warfare strength, due to concerns about the safety of the regime following the war against terrorism waged by the U.S.A.Viewed from such a perspective, there is every possibility that cyber attacks and acts of cyber terrorism, which have thus far remained pretty much a game involving non-state actors, may turn into a cyber war between state actors. Cyber warfare is being talked about as a new means of warfare that can shut down a country’s socioeconomic system or thwart a state’s ability to wage physical warfare by attacking its information infrastructure and strategic data. Realistically, there is a high possibility of cyber attacks being waged between two countries in the initial stages of a more conventional war. Suspicions were raised that the Russian government was behind the DDoS attack waged prior to Russia’s attack on Georgia in 2008 or the cyber attack against Estonia in 2007, although the Russian government denied its direct involvement in the cyber attack.State actors take it upon themselves to play the role of “digital shield” against attacks from “cyber spears”, although they may also become the key actors of cyber attacks. In a report recently published by the White House under the title International Strategy for Cyberspace (2011), it strongly raised the need to cope with cyber terrorism at the national level. In May 2011, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that it would even consider using missiles to fend off cyber terrorism attacks, in what amounted to an overt display of the U.S. government’s resolute attitude. The announcement sounds rather paradoxical, as it is doubtful against whom such an extreme form of retaliation could actually be targeted. The U.S. anxiety lies in the fact that it is not easy to prepare against an identified enemy that is likely to wage a cyber attack as noted in the foregoing.Need for International Collaboration on Cyber SecuritySuch being the case, it is only natural that awareness of the need for more comprehensive international collaboration should be recognized more widely, as it is not enough for a single country to attempt to cope with matters relating to cyber security. The aforesaid report published by the White House in 2011 also stresses the need for international collaboration in the domain of cyber security. In retrospect, many countries have joined in the effort for international collaboration against cyber crime or terrorism over the past decade. The European Convention on Cybercrime 2001 was an example of an effort made in the early days to establish an inter-governmental network for mutual coordination of the legal system. Even Asian countries have discussed the need for international collaboration for cyber security within the framework of ASEAN+3 or APEC. The e-ASEAN Project 2000 and the 4th ARF Seminar on Cyber Terrorism 2007 held in Seoul are examples of such efforts. APEC is also trying to settle issues concerning cyber security in the Asia-Pacific region in collaboration with ASEAN and the OECD.To summarize, cyber attacks and acts of cyber terrorism perpetrated using the mechanisms of a complex network are not an issue that can be settled by a single country’s efforts to come up with countermeasures or to overhaul the relevant laws and systems. Essentially, it is necessary to look for solutions through close international collaboration, as this problem occurs beyond national borders. More technically, it is necessary to move beyond “inter-national” politics (i.e., politics involving state actors) if we are to resolve cyber security-related issues. In other words, state actors need to establish “inter-network” politics with digital shields in connection with the need to fend off the supranational network of non-state actors dedicated to attacking state systems with “cyber spears”.이 글에 포함된 의견은 저자 개인의 견해로 제주평화연구원의 공식입장과는 무관합니다.* Dr. KIM SangBae is a professor in the Department of Political Science and International Relations at Seoul National University (SNU). He received his B.A. and M.A. from SNU, and obtained a Ph.D. degree in Political Science at Indiana University in the United States. Author of numerous books and articles, Dr. KIM has written extensively about information technology and international politics.